First unified during the 11th century by King Anawrahta, Burma remained independent until 1287, when Kublai Khan's Mongol hordes invaded the country and destroyed the political order. A second dynasty was established in 1486 but was plagued by internal disunity, compounded since the mid-16th century by intermittent wars with Siam (now Thailand). A new dynasty was established in 1752, and the country was reunited under King Alaungpaya. Under the rule of Alaungpaya and his successor Burma repelled Chinese invasion and confronted the British, who were vying with the French for dominance in the area.
Burma was annexed to British India during the three Anglo-Burmese wars between 1824 and 1886. Thibaw, the last king, was exiled by the British, and the entire monarchical system was destroyed. During the colonial era, a large influx of Indians and Chinese, along with the British, came to control much of the country's economy. Burma was separated from India in 1937 and granted a constitution providing a limited measure of self-government. Until independence, the country's ethnic minorities were administered under a separate system.
During World War II, the Japanese occupied Burma and granted a fictitious independence under a puppet regime led by anti-British nationalists, who later turned against the Japanese and aided the Allied forces in retaking the country. A coalition of nationalist forces, the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League (AFPFL), emerged as the principal political organization following the Japanese defeat in 1945 and the restoration of British authority. Under AFPFL leadership. various groups and regions within British Burma eventually joined to form the Union of Burma, which on January 4, 1948, became a fully independent nation outside the Commonwealth.
During the first decade of independence, the Burmese Government was controlled by the AFPFL, headed by Prime Minister U Nu, who had become president of that organization following the assassination in 1947 of Burma's great wartime and postwar hero, Gen. Aung San. The new government carried on the tradition of parliamentary democracy inherited from the British and was dedicated to the creation of a socialist welfare state.
During the early years of independence, the government vigorously consolidated its power and held the union together in the face of revolts by communists and other dissident groups as well as separatist movements among ethnic minorities. In 1958, the AFPFL split, precipitating a political crisis that led to an army takeover in September of that year led by the Chief of Staff, Gen. U Ne Win. Preserving constitutional forms, Gen. U Ne Win, acting as prime minister, set up a "caretaker" government with the limited objective of restoring order and stability necessary for new elections. U Nu and his faction of the AFPFL, renamed the Union Party, won an overwhelming majority in the 1960 elections.
Despite popular backing, the U Nu government proved ineffective and indecisive in coping with growing problems of internal security, national unity, and economic development. Difficulties were compounded by factional disputes within the Union Party similar to those that split the AFPFL in 1958. U Nu's decision to move toward a federal system to placate minorities provoked fear among some that AFPFL would be destroyed. Gen. U Ne Win again deposed the AFPFL government in a March 1962 coup, suspended the constitution, and established a new revolutionary government.
On March 2 1974, a constitutionally elected, single-party government was installed. Gen. U Ne Win assumed the presidency with the same basic group of military officers in control. Requirements that military officers in civilian positions resign reduced the military appearance of the government structure. However, candidates for top positions were recruited frequently from the military, which continued to play a key role in Burma's power structure.
U Ne Win retired in November 1981, upon election of his successor by the Council of State. Nevertheless, as Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP), he continued to influence Burma's politics.
At an extraordinary congress of the BSPP in July 1988, U Ne Win resigned as party chairman, citing personal responsibility for the economic conditions that had led to a series of violent riots in Rangoon the previous March and June. U Sein Lwin, a Ne Win protege, was named Chairman of the BSPP and President of the country. His appointment led to the beginning of a nationwide revolt, with mass demonstrations in cities and towns throughout Burma. In Rangoon, army troops fired on peaceful demonstrators during the week of August 8-12 and killed substantial numbers, but they were unable to quell the demonstrations. U Sein Lwin resigned on August 12; his successor, Dr. Maung Maung, was appointed by another extraordinary party congress of the BSPP on August 19.
Dr. Maung Maung was unable to halt popular opposition to the BSPP government. By the middle of September, the BSPP virtually ceased functioning, and many party members joined the millions of demonstrators nationwide in demanding the immediate formation of an interim government of respected non-BSPP figures, followed by national multiparty elections. Though Dr. Maung Maung offered a formula for multiparty elections and decreed that no government employee could be a member of any political party, he refused to step down in favor of an interim government. In Rangoon, the collapse of civil authority led to a state of anarchy in many neighborhoods, and instances of looting were widespread.
The army formally took over governmental authority on September 18, deposing Maung Maung, abolishing the BSPP and the civilian Councils of State, and imposing strict military rule over the country. Large numbers of demonstrators were killed in Rangoon, Mandalay, and other cities, and open opposition was quelled through the use of brutal force. Several thousand students fled the cities and concentrated in insurgent-held areas near the Thai border, where they hoped to acquire arms and training before returning to the cities to wage an urban guerrilla campaign against the army.
In taking power, the military pledged to hold multiparty elections once law and order was reestablished and allowed the formation of new political parties. Two principal parties emerged: the National Unity Party, which was essentially the BSPP under a new name, and the National League for Democracy, led by the three leading opponents of the Ne Win-BSPP regime, Tin U, Aung Gyi, and Aung San Suu Kyi. As of December 1988, the military government had set no date for elections.
Political Conditions
With the military takeover of September 1988, the Burma Socialist Program Party was formally abolished, and all governing authority was concentrated in the hands of the military. In announcing the takeover, Gen. Saw Maung stated that military rule would be temporary and multiparty elections would be held once law and order was reestablished. The Commission on Elections, established by the Maung Maung government, shortly afterward published rules permitting the registration of new political parties. A trickle of new parties then applied for and received official registration; by October, this trickle had become a flood, and by December 1988, more than 150 parties were officially in existence.
Underlying this veneer of democracy, however, are the effects of military rule. The large number of demonstrators killed in the September takeover, arrest and imprisonment of persons suspected of leading demonstrations, forced return to work of striking workers, and summary dismissal of thousands of government employees who had participated in demonstrations contribute to an atmosphere of fear and intimidation. Leaders of opposition parties have been able to campaign in various parts of Burma but at times have had campaign activities circumscribed by local military commands.
Two principal parties emerged from the September takeover; the National League for Democracy, led by several leading opponents of the regime, is generally acknowledged as the principal opposition party, while the National Union Party, make up mostly of former Burma Socialist Program Party members, is commonly viewed as a continuation of the BSPP.
Uncertainty presently surround the regime's stated intention to hold multiparty elections once law and order is reestablished. As of December 1988, the military government has not given a date for elections or indicated in general terms when an election might be held.
An additional unknown factor is U Ne Win. though technically a private citizen, he is widely believed to retain a great deal of personal power and may well have substantial influence among the military leadership.
Source: U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, February 1989.